The Mari El Republic (Russian: Респу́блика Мари́й Эл, Respublika Mariy El; Meadow Mari: Марий Эл Республик; Hill Mari: Мары Эл Республик) is a federal subject of Russia (a republic). It is geographically located in the European Russia region of the country, along the northern bank of the Volga River, and is administratively part of the Volga Federal District. The Mari El Republic has a population of 696,459 (2010 Census).[9]
Республика Марий Эл | |
Other transcription(s) | |
---|---|
• Meadow Mari | Марий Эл Республик |
• Hill Mari | Мары Эл Республик |
Coat of arms | |
Anthem: National Anthem of the Mari El Republic[3] | |
Coordinates: 56°42′N47°52′E / 56.700°N 47.867°ECoordinates: 56°42′N47°52′E / 56.700°N 47.867°E | |
Country | Russia |
Federal district | Volga[1] |
Economic region | Volga-Vyatka[2] |
Established | December 5, 1936[4] |
Capital | Yoshkar-Ola |
Government | |
• Body | State Assembly[5] |
• Head[5] | Alexander Yevstifeyev[6][7] |
Area | |
• Total | 23,200 km2 (9,000 sq mi) |
Area rank | 72nd |
Population | |
• Total | 696,459 |
• Estimate (2018)[10] | 682,333 (-2%) |
• Rank | 65th |
• Density | 30/km2 (78/sq mi) |
• Urban | 63.1% |
• Rural | 36.9% |
Time zone | UTC+3 (MSK[11]) |
ISO 3166 code | RU-ME |
License plates | 12 |
Official languages | Russian;[12]Mari (Meadow and Hill variants)[13] |
OKTMO ID | 88000000 |
Website | http://gov.mari.ru |
Yoshkar-Ola is the capital and the largest city of the Republic.
Mari El is one of Russia's ethnic republics, primarily representing the indigenous Mari people, a Finno-Ugric ethnic group who have traditionally lived along the Volga River and Kama River. The majority of the Republic's population are ethnic Russians (47.4%) and Mari (43.9%), with minority populations of Tatars and Chuvash. The official languages of Mari El are Russian and the Mari language. Mari El is bordered by Nizhny Novgorod Oblast to the west, Kirov Oblast to the north, Tatarstan to the east, and Chuvashia to the south.
- 5Demographics
- 6Economy
Geography[edit]
The Republic is located in the eastern part of the East European Plain of Russia, along and mostly to the north of the Volga River. The swampy Mari Depression is in the west of the Republic, contrasted by more hilly landscapes in the east where the highest point of the Republic (at 278 meters (912 ft)[14]) is located. The Republic borders with Kirov Oblast in the north and east, the Republic of Tatarstan in the southeast and south, the Chuvash Republic in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in the west and north.[citation needed]
There are 476 rivers in the Republic, with the Volga and its tributaries being the major water arteries. Most rivers are considered to be minor—10–50 meters (33–164 ft) wide and 0.5–1.4 meters (1 ft 8 in–4 ft 7 in) deep—and usually freeze between mid-November and mid-April. There are over 700 lakes and ponds; many located in the swampy areas and having areas of less than 1 square kilometer (0.39 sq mi) and depths between 1 and 3 meters (3 ft 3 in and 9 ft 10 in). Lake Yalchik, occupying 150 hectares (370 acres), is the largest by area, while Lake Tabashinskoye is the deepest. Swamps cover large areas—10–70 square kilometers (3.9–27.0 sq mi) and up to 100 square kilometers (39 sq mi)—and usually freeze in December. While swamps tend to be shallow, with an average depth of 0.5–1.5 meters (1 ft 8 in–4 ft 11 in), they are impassable in fall and spring due to flooding.[citation needed]
Climate is moderately continental, with moderately cold and snowy winters and warm and often rainy summers. The average temperatures range from 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in summer to −18 – −20 °C (0 – −4 °F) in winter. November is the windiest month of the year. Annual precipitation varies from 450 to 500 millimeters (18 to 20 in).
There are virtually no natural resources of industrial significance in the Republic. Other resources include peat, mineral waters, and limestone. About 50% of the Republic's territory is forested, although the level of forestation varies significantly from one district to another.[citation needed]
History[edit]
Ancient Mari tribes were known since the 5th century, though archaeologists suspect that the Mari culture is much older in its roots. Later their area was a tributary of Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In the 1440s it was incorporated into the Khanate of Kazan and was occupied by the Tsardom of Russia (governed by Ivan the Terrible) after the fall of Kazan in 1552.
After the Russian Revolution, under the Bolshevik regime, the Mari Autonomous Oblast was established on November 4, 1920. It was re-organized into the Mari ASSR on December 5, 1936, at the same time as the enactment of the 1936 Soviet Constitution (a.k.a. the 'Stalin Constitution'). In its present form, the Mari El Republic was formed on December 22, 1990. On 21 May 1998 Mari El alongside Amur, Ivanovo, Kostroma, and Voronezh Oblast signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy.[15] This agreement would be abolished on 31 December 2001.[16]
Administrative divisions[edit]
Politics[edit]
The head of government in the Mari El Republic is the Head (formerly President). As of 2017, the Head is Alexander Yevstifeyev, who was appointed in April 2017.[17]
The government of Mari El has been pursuing Russification in recent years, with the former head of the republic, Leonid Markelov, ordering many Mari language newspapers to close.[citation needed] Many ethnic Mari activists live in fear of violence. The Mari activist and chief editor Vladimir Kozlov was badly beaten after he criticized Markelov's government. Other Mari leaders have been subject to violence, legal persecution, and intimidation.[18]
The Mari people's native religion has encountered hostility as well. Vitaly Tanakov was charged with inciting religious, national, social and linguistic hatred after publishing the book The Priest Speaks.[19]
The International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHF) and the Moscow Helsinki Group (MHG),in an exhaustive 2006 report Russian Federation: The Human Rights Situation of the Mari Minority of the Republic of Mari El, found widespread evidence of political and cultural persecution of Mari people, and of 'a broader trend of repression of dissidents in the republic'.[20]
Demographics[edit]
Population: 696,459 (2010 Census);[9]727,979 (2002 Census);[21]749,386 (1989 Census).[22]
Vital statistics[edit]
- Source: Russian Federal State Statistics Service
Average population (x 1000) | Live births | Deaths | Natural change | Crude birth rate (per 1000) | Crude death rate (per 1000) | Natural change (per 1000) | Fertility rates | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1970 | 686 | 10,505 | 6,364 | 4,141 | 15.3 | 9.3 | 6.0 | |
1975 | 695 | 11,816 | 7,190 | 4,626 | 17.0 | 10.3 | 6.7 | |
1980 | 710 | 13,169 | 8,091 | 5,078 | 18.5 | 11.4 | 7.2 | |
1985 | 728 | 14,198 | 8,529 | 5,669 | 19.5 | 11.7 | 7.8 | |
1990 | 755 | 11,953 | 7,775 | 4,178 | 15.8 | 10.3 | 5.5 | 2,16 |
1991 | 756 | 10,578 | 7,786 | 2,792 | 14.0 | 10.3 | 3.7 | 1,97 |
1992 | 758 | 9,227 | 8,330 | 897 | 12.2 | 11.0 | 1.2 | 1,76 |
1993 | 758 | 8,019 | 9,622 | - 1,603 | 10.6 | 12.7 | - 2.1 | 1,56 |
1994 | 758 | 7,851 | 10,788 | - 2,937 | 10.4 | 14.2 | - 3.9 | 1,53 |
1995 | 757 | 7,337 | 9,999 | - 2,662 | 9.7 | 13.2 | - 3.5 | 1,43 |
1996 | 755 | 6,952 | 9,495 | - 2,543 | 9.2 | 12.6 | - 3.4 | 1,35 |
1997 | 752 | 6,782 | 9,625 | - 2,843 | 9.0 | 12.8 | - 3.8 | 1,32 |
1998 | 749 | 6,657 | 9,623 | - 2,966 | 8.9 | 12.8 | - 4.0 | 1,29 |
1999 | 746 | 6,597 | 10,674 | - 4,077 | 8.8 | 14.3 | - 5.5 | 1,28 |
2000 | 741 | 6,784 | 11,040 | - 4,256 | 9.1 | 14.9 | - 5.7 | 1,30 |
2001 | 736 | 6,832 | 11,434 | - 4,602 | 9.3 | 15.5 | - 6.3 | 1,30 |
2002 | 729 | 7,300 | 12,105 | - 4,805 | 10.0 | 16.6 | - 6.6 | 1,38 |
2003 | 723 | 7,515 | 11,861 | - 4,346 | 10.4 | 16.4 | - 6.0 | 1,40 |
2004 | 718 | 7,715 | 12,098 | - 4,383 | 10.7 | 16.9 | - 6.1 | 1,40 |
2005 | 713 | 7,475 | 12,256 | - 4,781 | 10.5 | 17.2 | - 6.7 | 1,34 |
2006 | 708 | 7,550 | 11,286 | - 3,736 | 10.7 | 15.9 | - 5.3 | 1,32 |
2007 | 704 | 8,306 | 10,745 | - 2,439 | 11.8 | 15.3 | - 3.5 | 1,45 |
2008 | 701 | 8,620 | 10,699 | - 2,079 | 12.3 | 15.3 | - 3.0 | 1,50 |
2009 | 699 | 8,896 | 10,435 | - 1,539 | 12.7 | 14.9 | - 2.2 | 1,60 |
2010 | 696 | 8,857 | 10,572 | - 1,715 | 12.7 | 15.2 | - 2.5 | 1,59 |
2011 | 694 | 9,066 | 9,816 | - 750 | 13.0 | 14.1 | - 1.1 | 1,66 |
2012 | 691 | 9,834 | 9,449 | 385 | 14.2 | 13.7 | 0.5 | 1,83 |
2013 | 689 | 10,088 | 9,444 | 644 | 14.6 | 13.7 | 0.9 | 1,93 |
2014 | 688 | 10,081 | 9,411 | 670 | 14.7 | 13.7 | 1.0 | 1,98 |
2015 | 687 | 9,951 | 9,448 | 503 | 14.5 | 13.7 | 0.8 | 1,99 |
2016 | 685 | 9,567 | 9,025 | 542 | 13.9 | 13.2 | 0.7 | 1,98(e) |
2017 | 683 | 8,147 | 8,493 | -346 | 11.9 | 12.4 | -0.5 |
Note: Total fertility rate source.[23]
Ethnic groups[edit]
Though the Mari people have lived in the area for millennia, they did not have a designated territory before the Russian Revolution of 1917. According to the 2002 Census, only 51.7% of the Mari within Russia live in the Mari El Republic, while 17.5% live in the Republic of Bashkortostan. During the last Soviet Census (1989), 4% of the Mari of the Soviet Union lived outside of Russia.
Since World War II, more ethnic Russians and Tatars have moved into the area. According to the 2010 Census,[9]Russians make up 47.4% of the republic's population, while the ethnic Mari make up 43.9%. Other groups include Tatars (5.8%), Chuvash (0.9%), Ukrainians (0.6%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.
Ethnic group | 1926 Census | 1939 Census | 1959 Census | 1970 Census | 1979 Census | 1989 Census | 2002 Census | 2010 Census1 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
Mari | 247,979 | 51.4% | 273,332 | 47.2% | 279,450 | 43.1% | 299,179 | 43.7% | 306,627 | 43.5% | 324,349 | 43.3% | 312,178 | 42.9% | 290,863 | 43.9% |
Russians | 210,016 | 43.6% | 266,951 | 46.1% | 309,514 | 47.8% | 320,825 | 46.9% | 334,561 | 47.5% | 355,973 | 47.5% | 345,513 | 47.5% | 313,947 | 47.4% |
Tatars | 20,219 | 4.2% | 27,149 | 4.7% | 38,821 | 6.0% | 40,279 | 5.9% | 40,917 | 5.8% | 43,850 | 5.9% | 43,377 | 6.0% | 38,357 | 5.8% |
Chuvash | 2,184 | 0.5% | 5,504 | 0.9% | 9,065 | 1.4% | 9,032 | 1.3% | 8,087 | 1.1% | 8,993 | 1.2% | 7,418 | 1.0% | 6,025 | 0.9% |
Others | 1,703 | 0.4% | 6,674 | 1.2% | 10,830 | 1.7% | 15,433 | 2.3% | 14,015 | 2.0% | 16,167 | 2.2% | 19,943 | 2.7% | 13,138 | 2.0% |
134,129 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.[24] |
Religion[edit]
Religion in Mari El as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas)[25][26] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Russian Orthodoxy | 47.8% | |||
Other Orthodox | 1.2% | |||
Old Believers | 1% | |||
Other Christians | 4.8% | |||
Islam | 6% | |||
Rodnovery and other native faiths | 5.6% | |||
Spiritual but not religious | 24.8% | |||
Atheism and irreligion | 5.8% | |||
Other and undeclared | 3% |
The religions with the most adherents in the republic are Russian Orthodoxy, the Mari native religion, the Old Believers, and Islam. The traditional Mari religion (Chimari yula) is still practiced to by many Mari people and is the main religion of the Mari of Bashkortostan, also practiced is a syncretism with Christianity. The Czars took drastic measures to force Christianity on the Mari, going so far as blowing up a holy mountain, and the persecution of the religion went on under the Soviet Union.
During the 1990s the religion was officially recognized by the State and began to revive. The Mari gather at around 520 holy groves where they offer animal and vegetable sacrifices, there are about 20 festivals yearly. Although traditional religion is one of Mari El's three officially recognized religions (along with Orthodoxy and Islam) Mari religious practices have come under increasing pressure, according to human rights groups.[27]
According to a 2012 survey,[25] 47.8% of the population of Mari El adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6% adheres to the Mari native religion, 6% adheres to Islam, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Old Believers and 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without church affiliation or members of other Orthodox churches. In addition, 25% of the population is 'spiritual but not religious', 6% is atheist and 4.2% follows other religions or did not answer the question.[25]
Economy[edit]
The most developed industries are machine construction, metalworking, timber, woodworking, and food industries. Most of the industrial enterprises are located in the capital Yoshkar-Ola, as well as in the towns of Kozmodemyansk, Volzhsk, and Zvenigovo.[citation needed]
The largest companies in the region include Mariysky Oil Refinery (revenues of $502.23 million in 2017), Mari Pulp and Paper Mill ($137.13 million), Shelanger Chemical Plant 'Siver' ($14.52 million), Marbiopharm ($14.02 million).[28]
Transportation[edit]
Traveling cheaply and quickly to various towns and villages within the Republic is made possible through a network of fifteen train stations, fifty-three bus stations, and numerous marshrutkas. The republic is connected to different regions throughout Russia by daily trains to and from Moscow and Kazan, flights on one commercial airline from Yoshkar-Ola Airport, located near Yoshkar-Ola, and a port on the Volga River in Kozmodemyansk. There are also four other minor river ports in the republic. Regional automobile code is 12.[citation needed]
Communication[edit]
Telephony, Internet service, and cable television are provided by VolgaTelecom.[citation needed]
Culture[edit]
There are many museums located throughout the territory of the republic. The largest ones include the National Museum, the Museum of History, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Yoshkar-Ola; the Museum of Arts and History, the Ethnographic Open-Air Museum, and the Merchant Life Museum in Kozmodemyansk; and the Sheremetyev Castle Museum-reserve in Yurino. There are also museums dedicated to the poet Nikolay Mukhin and the composer Ivan Klyuchnikov-Palantay in Yoshkar-Ola and the house-museum of writer Sergei Chavayn in Chavaynur.
Five theaters are located in Yoshkar-Ola with performances in both the Russian and Mari languages.
Education[edit]
The most important facilities of higher education are Mari State Technical University and Mari State University,[29] both located in Yoshkar-Ola. There are also more than 900 primary and secondary schools located throughout the republic.
For the past few years, the Mari El Republic has been participating in the national project 'Education' ('Oбразование'), which is designed to improve education throughout Russia by bringing new technology into the classroom, improving material conditions in schools, and providing financial awards to extraordinary students and teachers. Although the Mari language is officially a state language, Mari educators and administrators have been forced from their positions in recent years and Mari-language education has been defunded, according to the U.S. State Department,[30] the European Union, and others.[31]
Notable people[edit]
- Shabdar Osyp, author
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^Президент Российской Федерации. Указ №849 от 13 мая 2000 г. «О полномочном представителе Президента Российской Федерации в федеральном округе». Вступил в силу 13 мая 2000 г. Опубликован: 'Собрание законодательства РФ', №20, ст. 2112, 15 мая 2000 г. (President of the Russian Federation. Decree #849 of May 13, 2000 On the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in a Federal District. Effective as of May 13, 2000.).
- ^Госстандарт Российской Федерации. №ОК 024-95 27 декабря 1995 г. «Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов. 2. Экономические районы», в ред. Изменения №5/2001 ОКЭР. (Gosstandart of the Russian Federation. #OK 024-95 December 27, 1995 Russian Classification of Economic Regions. 2. Economic Regions, as amended by the Amendment #5/2001 OKER. ).
- ^Constitution of the Mari El Republic, Article 16
- ^Official website of the Mari El Republic. Ethnic and Historical Reference, mari.ru; accessed September 14, 2017. (in Russian)
- ^ abConstitution, Article 6.2
- ^Terekhov, Konstantin. 'ИНАУГУРАЦИЯ АЛЕКСАНДРА ЕВСТИФЕЕВА: ПРЯМАЯ ТРАНСЛЯЦИЯ ЦЕРЕМОНИИ'. potokmedia.ru. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
- ^Official website of the Mari El Republic. Alexander Alexandrovich Yevstifeyev(in Russian)
- ^Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal State Statistics Service) (May 21, 2004). 'Территория, число районов, населённых пунктов и сельских администраций по субъектам Российской Федерации (Territory, Number of Districts, Inhabited Localities, and Rural Administration by Federal Subjects of the Russian Federation)'. Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года (All-Russia Population Census of 2002) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved November 1, 2011.
- ^ abcdRussian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). 'Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1' [2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1]. Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года [2010 All-Russia Population Census] (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service.
- ^'26. Численность постоянного населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2018 года'. Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved January 23, 2019.
- ^'Об исчислении времени'. Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации (in Russian). June 3, 2011. Retrieved January 19, 2019.
- ^Official throughout the Russian Federation according to Article 68.1 of the Constitution of Russia.
- ^Constitution of the Mari El Republic, Article 15
- ^='SportTourism'>Спортивный туризм в Татарстане. По просторам Марий Эл. Справка о местности.(in Russian)
- ^'Newsline - May 22, 1998 Yeltsin Signs More Power-Sharing Agreements with Regions'. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
- ^Chuman, Mizuki. 'The Rise and Fall of Power-Sharing Treaties Between Center and Regions in Post-Soviet Russia'(PDF). Demokratizatsiya: 146.
- ^'Alexander Yevstifeyev appointed Acting Head of Mari El'. Kremlin.ru. April 6, 2017.
- ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 'World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Russian Federation: Mari'. Unhcr.org. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^Russia Moves to Ban Religious Rites of Indigenous Finno-Ugric People MariArchived October 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^'Russian Federation: The Human Rights Situation of the Mari Minority of the Republic of Mari El : A Study of the Titular Nationality of One of Russia's Ethnic Regions'(PDF). Mhg.ru. Retrieved September 17, 2017.
- ^Russian Federal State Statistics Service (May 21, 2004). 'Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек' [Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000] (XLS). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года [All-Russia Population Census of 2002] (in Russian).
- ^'Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров' [All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers]. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года [All-Union Population Census of 1989] (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. 1989 – via Demoscope Weekly.
- ^'Каталог публикаций::Федеральная служба государственной статистики'. Gks.ru. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^'ВПН-2010'. Perepis-2010.ru. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^ abc'Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia'. Sreda, 2012.
- ^2012 Arena Atlas Religion Maps. 'Ogonek', № 34 (5243), 27/08/2012. Retrieved 21/04/2017. Archived.
- ^May 20, 2009 (May 20, 2009). 'Russian Federation: Amnesty International launches annual report and second Memorandum to President Medvedev'. Amnesty.org. Archived from the original on August 11, 2014. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^'Выписки ЕГРЮЛ и ЕГРИП, проверка контрагентов, ИНН и КПП организаций, реквизиты ИП и ООО'. СБИС (in Russian). Retrieved October 20, 2018.
- ^'marsu.ru'. marsu.ru. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^'Human Rights Reports'. State.gov. January 20, 2009. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^Fuller, Liz. 'Russia: Marii El Begins To Look Like Belarus On The Volga'. Rferl.org. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
Sources[edit]
- 24 июня 1995 г. «Конституция Республики Марий Эл», в ред. Закона №21-З от 31 июля 2014 г. «О поправке 59 к Конституции Республики Марий Эл». Вступил в силу 7 июля 1995 г. (за исключением отдельных положений). Опубликован: 'Марийская правда', 7 июля 1995 г. (June 24, 1995 Constitution of the Mari El Republic, as amended by the Law #21-Z of July 31, 2014 On Amendment 59 to the Constitution of the Mari El Republic. Effective as of July 7, 1995 (with the exception of several clauses).).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mari El. |
- (in Russian)Official website of the Mari El Republic
- (in Russian)Industry in the Mari El Republic
- (in Russian)Meadow Mari-Russian-Japanese dictionary
- (in Russian)About nature in Mari EL republic
- (in Russian)Map of Mari El
Further reading[edit]
- Daniel Kalder. Lost Cosmonaut: Observations of an Anti-tourist
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Mari | |
Shown within Syria | |
Alternative name | Tell Hariri |
---|---|
Location | Abu Kamal, Deir ez-Zor Governorate, Syria |
Coordinates | 34°32′58″N40°53′24″E / 34.54944°N 40.89000°ECoordinates: 34°32′58″N40°53′24″E / 34.54944°N 40.89000°E |
Type | Settlement |
Area | 60 hectares (150 acres) |
History | |
Founded | c. 2900 BC |
Abandoned | 3rd century BC |
Periods | Bronze Age |
Cultures | East-Semitic (Kish civilization), Amorite |
Site notes | |
Archaeologists | André Parrot |
Condition | Ruined |
Ownership | Public |
Public access | Yes |
Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Arabic: تل حريري) was an ancient Semitic city in modern-day Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located 11 kilometers north-west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates river western bank, some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez-Zor. It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC.[note 1] As a purposely-built city, the existence of Mari was related to its position in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes; this position made it an intermediary between Sumer in the south and the Levant in the west.
Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East Semitic state before 2500 BC. This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla and is known for its strong affinity with Sumerian culture. It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians, who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor bearing the title of Shakkanakku ('military governor'). The governors later became independent with the rapid disintegration of the Akkadian Empire and rebuilt the city as a regional center in the middle Euphrates valley. The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC, when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons. A short time after the Shakkanakku collapse, Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty. The Amorite Mari was short-lived as it was annexed by Babylonia in c. 1761 BC, but the city survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period.
The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a center of old trade. However, although the pre-Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence, Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but rather a Semitic-speaking nation that used a dialect similar to Eblaite. The Amorites were West Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC; by the Lim dynasty's era (c. 1830 BC), they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent.
Mari's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, due to the discovery of more than 25,000 tablets that contained important information about the administration of state during the 2nd millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations between the political entities in the region. They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC, which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean region.
Mari 4.1
- 2History
- 2.2The second kingdom
- 2.3The third kingdom
- 2.3.2The Lim dynasty
- 3People, language and government
- 6Excavations and archive
- 10References
Name[edit]
The name of the city can be traced to Mer, an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria, who was considered the patron deity of the city,[1]Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically to that of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him.[2]
History[edit]
The first kingdom[edit]
Mari is not considered a small settlement that later grew,[3] but rather a new city that was purposely founded during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I c. 2900 BC, to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes that connect the Levant with the Sumerian south.[3][4] The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods,[3] and was connected to the river by an artificial canal that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long, depending on which meander it used for transport, which is hard to identify today.[5]
The city is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation.[4] A defensive system against floods composed of a circular embankment was unearthed,[4] in addition to a circular 6.7 m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies.[4] An area 300 meters in length filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters[5] separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart, which had a height of 8 to 10 meters and was strengthened by defensive towers.[5] Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses.[4] Mari had a central mound,[6] but no temple or palace has been unearthed there.[4] A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 meters X 25 meters) and seems to have had an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide.[7] The city was abandoned at the end of the Early Dynastic period II c. 2550 BC for unknown reasons.[4]
The second kingdom[edit]
Second Mariote Kingdom | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
c. 2500 BC–c. 2290 BC | ||||
The second kingdom during the reign of Iblul-Il | ||||
Capital | Mari | |||
Common languages | Mariote dialect | |||
Religion | Mesopotamian | |||
Government | Monarchy | |||
Historical era | Bronze Age | |||
• Established | c. 2500 BC | |||
c. 2290 BC | ||||
| ||||
Today part of | Syria Iraq |
Around the beginning of Early Dynastic period III (earlier than 2500 BC)[8] Mari was rebuilt and populated again.[4][9] The new city kept many of the first city's exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate.[4][10] Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring 1.9 km in diameter, which was topped by a wall two meters thick capable of[10] protecting archers.[4]
However, the internal urban structure was completely changed[11] and the new city was carefully planned. First to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates, ensuring the drainage of rain water.[4]
At the heart of the city, a royal palace was built that also served as a temple.[4] Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom's palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designated P3, while the latest is P0). The last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period.[12] The first two levels were excavated;[12] the findings include a temple named the Enceinte Sacrée,[note 2] which was the largest in the city but it is unknown for whom it was dedicated.[12][13] Also unearthed were a pillared throne room and a hall with three double wood pillars leading to the temple.[12]
Six more temples were discovered in the city, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (to whom it was dedicated is unknown), and temples dedicated to Ninni-Zaza, Ishtarat,[14]Ishtar, Ninhursag and Shamash.[13] All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple; the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered to have been the administrative center of the high priest.[13]
The second kingdom appears to have been a powerful and prosperous political center,[8] its kings held the title of Lugal,[15] and many are attested in the city, the most important source being the letter of king Enna-Dagan c. 2350 BC,[note 3][17] which was sent to Irkab-Damu of Ebla,[note 4]. In it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements.[19] However, the reading of this letter is still problematic and many interpretations have been presented by scholars.[20][21][22]
Mari-Ebla war[edit]
The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is Ansud, who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war,[23] and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of Belan.[note 5][22] The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu, who conquered the lands of Ra'ak and Nirum.[note 6][22] King Kun-Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC.[26] The war continued with Išhtup-Išar of Mari's conquest of Emar[22] at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. King Igrish-Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul-Il of Mari,[26][27] who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the Burman region.[22]
Enna-Dagan also received tribute;[27] his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab-Damu of Ebla,[28] who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute.[18] Mari defeated Ebla's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.[29] The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa.[30] Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC,[31] during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar.[32]
According to Alfonso Archi, Hidar was succeeded by Isqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.[32][33] Just a decade after Ebla's destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad,[30]Michael Astour give the date as c. 2265 BC (short chronology).[34]
The third kingdom[edit]
Third Mariote Kingdom | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
c. 2266 BC–c. 1761 BC | |||||||
The third kingdom during the reign of Zimri-Lim c. 1764 BC | |||||||
Capital | Mari | ||||||
Common languages | Akkadian, Amorite | ||||||
Religion | Levantine Religion | ||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||
Historical era | Bronze Age | ||||||
• Established | c. 2266 BC | ||||||
c. 1761 BC | |||||||
| |||||||
Today part of | Syria Iraq |
Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu.[35] A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title Shakkanakku (military governor).[36] Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident by Naram-Sin of Akkad's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city.[36]
The Shakkanakku dynasty[edit]
The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish, who was appointed in c. 2266 BC.[note 7][38] According to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years[39] and was succeeded by his son, making the position hereditary.[40]
The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure,[41] phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku.[42] Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city,[6] and contained royal burials that date to the former periods.[43] The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width.[42] The former sacred inclosure was maintained,[42] so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared,[42] while a new temple called the 'temple of lions' (dedicated to Dagan),[44] was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup-Ilum and attached to it, was a rectangular terrace that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices.[42][6][45]
Akkad disintegrated during Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign,[46] and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period.[47] A princess of Mari married the son of king Ur-Nammu of Ur,[48][49] and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony.[50] However, the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari,[51][52] and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court.[53] The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC.[54][55][56]
The Lim dynasty[edit]
The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites, which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region,[57] including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid-Lim.[56][58] However, the epigraphical and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras.[note 8][48]
Yaggid-Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari,[note 9][note 10][61] he entered an alliance with Ila-kabkabu of Ekallatum, but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war.[60][62] The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim's heir Yahdun-Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu was killed by his servants.[note 11][60] However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari.[note 12][62]
Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim.[64] He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean,[65][66] however he later had to face a rebellion by the Banu-Yamina nomads who were centered at Tuttul, and the rebels were supported by Yamhad's king Sumu-Epuh, whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and Eshnunna.[51][65] Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided,[67] as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, the son of the late Ila-kabkabu.[68] The war ended in a defeat for Mari,[68][69] and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu-Yamam,[70][71] who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari.[72]
The Assyrian era and the Lim restoration[edit]
Shamshi-Adad appointed his son Yasmah-Adad on the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim's daughter,[73][74] while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad,[75] and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family.[76] To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter of Ishi-Addu of Qatna.[74] However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC,[74][77][78] while the armies of Yarim-Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri-Lim, the heir of the Lim dynasty.[note 13][78]
As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of the Banu-Simaal (Zimri-Lim's tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad,[80] opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adad's escape,[81] and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim-Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC.[78] Zimri-Lim's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Mari's status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad's main deity Hadad and Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad.[82]
Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against the Banu-Yamina, he also established alliances with Eshnunna and Hammurabi of Babylon,[75] and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians.[83] The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the Upper Khabur region, which was named Idamaraz,[84] where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as Urkesh,[85] and Talhayum, forcing them into vassalage.[86] The expansion was met by the resistance of Qarni-Lim, the king of Andarig,[87] whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing the Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC,[88] and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace.[78] Zimri-Lim's greatest heritage was the renovation of the Royal Palace, which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms,[6][89] exquisite artifacts such as The Goddess of the Vase statue,[90] and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets.[91]
The relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations,[92] during which a war against Elam involved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC.[93] Finally, the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri-Lim in battle in c. 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty,[94] while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named the Kingdom of Hana.[95]
Later periods[edit]
Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city.[96] However, Mari was allowed to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration, an act that Hammurabi considered merciful.[96] Later, Mari became part of Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1243–1207 BC).[97] Afterward, Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon.[97]
In the middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana whose king Tukulti-Mer took the title king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria, causing the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala to attack the city.[97] Mari came firmly under the authority of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certain Nergal-Erish to govern under the authority of king Adad-Nirari III (reigned 810–783 BC).[97] In c. 760 BC, Shamash-Risha-Usur,[98] an autonomous governor ruling parts of the upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority of Ashur-dan III, styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari, so did his son Ninurta-Kudurri-Usur.[97] However, by that time, Mari was known to be located in the so-called Land of Laqe,[note 14] making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it, and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons.[97] The city continued as a small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records.[97]
People, language and government[edit]
The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north.[3]I. J. Gelb relates Mari's foundation with the Kish civilization,[100] which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations, that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant.[101]
At its height, the second city was the home of about 40,000 people.[102] This population was East-Semitic speaking one, and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla (the Eblaite language),[9][103] while the Shakkanakku period had an East-Semitic Akkadian speaking population.[104]West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari since the second kingdom era,[105] and by the middle Bronze-Age, the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys.[106] Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period, even among the ruling dynasty members.[107]
During the Lim era, the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people,[note 15] and although the Amorite language became the dominant tongue, Akkadian remained the language of writing.[108][109][110] The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans, a term that indicate nomads in general,[111] those Haneans were split into the Banu-Yamina (sons of the right) and Banu-Simaal (sons of the left), with the ruling house belonging to the Banu-Simaal branch.[111] The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in the district of Terqa.[112]
Mari was an absolute monarchy, with the king controlling every aspect of the administration, helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators.[113][114] During the Lim era, Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital, the provincial seats were located at Terqa, Saggaratum, Qattunan and Tuttul. Each province had its own bureaucracy,[114] the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments, in return for a share in the harvest.[115]
Kings of Mari[edit]
The Sumerian King List (SKL) records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the dynasty of Adab and the dynasty of Kish.[116] The names of the Mariote kings were damaged on the early copies of the list,[23] and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second city.[9] However, an undamaged copy of the list that date to the old Babylonian period was discovered in Shubat-Enlil,[23] and the names bears no resemblance to any of the historically attested monarchs of the second city,[23] indicating that the compilers of the list had an older and probably a legendary dynasty in mind, that predate the second city.[23]
The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain; nevertheless, it is assumed that the letter of Enna-Dagan lists them in a chronological order.[117] Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city,[118][119] and the dates are highly speculative.[119]
For the Shakkanakkus, the lists are incomplete and after Hanun-Dagan who ruled at the end of the Ur era c. 2008 BC (c. 1920 BC Short chronology), they become full of lacunae.[120] Roughly 13 more Shakkanakkus succeeded Hanun-Dagan but only few are known, with the last known one reigning not too long before the reign of Yaggid-Lim who founded the Lim dynasty in c. 1830 BC.[55][121]
Ruler | Length of reign | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Kings from the SKL | ||||
Anbu | 30 years | This name is also read as Ilshu.[122] | ||
Anba | 17 years | His epithet was given as 'the son of Anbu' on the list.[123] | ||
Bazi | 30 years | His epithet was given as 'the leatherworker' on the list.[123] | ||
Zizi | 20 years | His epithet was given as 'the fuller' on the list.[123] | ||
Limer | 30 years | His epithet was given as 'the 'gudug' priest' on the list.[note 16][123] | ||
Sharrum-iter | 9 years | |||
'Then Mari was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kish.[123]' | ||||
The second kingdom | ||||
Ikun-Shamash | Reigned before the reign of Ur-Nanshe of Lagash.[116] | |||
Ikun-Shamagan | c. 2453 BC | His name was inscribed on a votive statue offered by his official 'Shibum'.[125] | ||
Ansud | c. 2423–2416 BC | His name is inscribed on a jar (as Hanusum) sent to Mari by Mesannepada of Ur.[9][23] The name was read by Pettinato as Anubu.[20][126] | ||
Saʿumu | c. 2416–2400 BC | He was attested in Enna-Dagan's letter as conquering many lands.[22] | ||
Išhtup-Išar | c. 2400 BC | He was attested in Enna-Dagan's letter as conquering Emar and other Eblaite vassals.[22] | ||
Ikun-Mari | This name is inscribed on a jar in Mari.[127] | |||
Iblul-Il | c. 2380 BC | He forced Ebla to pay tribute.[22] | ||
Nizi | His reign lasted three years.[128] | |||
Enna-Dagan | c. 2340 BC | He wrote a letter to Irkab-Damu of Ebla to assert Mari's authority.[19] | ||
Ikun-Ishar | c. 2320 BC | He is attested in the Eblaite archives.[129] | ||
Hidar | c. 2300 BC | He is attested in the archives of Ebla, which was destroyed during his reign.[130] | ||
Isqi-Mari | His name was previously read as Lamgi-Mari.[131] Hypothetically the last king.[29] | |||
The Shakkanakkus | ||||
Ididish | c. 2266–2206 BC | |||
Shu-Dagan | c. 2206–2200 BC | He was the son of Ididish.[40] | ||
Ishme-Dagan | c. 2199–2154 BC | He ruled for 45 years.[39][132] | ||
Nûr-Mêr | c. 2153–2148 BC | He was the son of Ishme-Dagan.[39] | ||
Ishtup-Ilum | c. 2147–2136 BC | He was the brother of Nûr-Mêr.[39] | ||
Ishgum-Addu | c. 2135–2127 BC | He reigned for eight years.[39] | ||
Apîl-kîn | c. 2126–2091 BC | He was the son of Ishme-Dagan.[39][133] Was designated with the royal title Lugal in a votive inscription set by his daughter.[134] | ||
Iddin-El | c. 2090–2085 BC | His name is also read as Iddi-Ilum; his name was inscribed on his votive statue.[135] | ||
Ili-Ishar | c. 2084–2072 BC | His name is inscribed on a brick.[136] | ||
Tura-Dagan | c. 2071–2051 BC | He was the son of Apîl-kîn and the brother of Ili-Ishar.[137] | ||
Puzur-Ishtar | c. 2050–2025 BC | He was the son of Turam-Dagan.[39] Used the royal title.[138] | ||
Hitlal-Erra | c. 2024–2017 BC | He was the son of Puzur-Ishtar.[139] Used the royal title.[138] | ||
Hanun-Dagan | c. 2016–2008 BC | He was the son of Puzur-Ishtar.[140] Used the royal title.[138] | ||
Isi-Dagan | c. 2000 BC | This name is inscribed on a seal.[141] | ||
Ennin-Dagan | He was the son of Isi-Dagan.[142] | |||
Itur-(...) | This name is damaged, a gap separate him from Ennin-Dagan.[55] | |||
Amer-Nunu | This name is inscribed on a seal.[143][144] | |||
Tir-Dagan | He was the son of Itur-(...).[145] | |||
Dagan-(...) | This name is damaged and is the last attested Shakkanakku.[146] | |||
The Lim dynasty | ||||
Yaggid-Lim | c. 1830–1820 BC | He may have ruled in Suprum rather than in Mari.[60][63] | ||
Yahdun-Lim | c. 1820–1798 BC | |||
Sumu-Yamam | c. 1798–1796 BC | |||
Assyrian period | ||||
Yasmah-Adad | c. 1796–1776 BC | He was the son of Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria.[74] | ||
Ishar-Lim | c. 1776 BC | He was an Assyrian official who usurped the throne for a few months between Yasmah-Adad's escape and Zimri-Lim's arrival.[81] | ||
Lim restoration | ||||
Zimri-Lim | c. 1776–1761 BC |
Culture and religion[edit]
The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south.[147] The society was led by an urban oligarchy,[148] and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress.[149][150] The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months, and was the same calendar used in Ebla 'the old Eblaite calendar'.[151][152] Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art, so was the architectural style.[153]
Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari's culture during the Amorite period,[154] which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city.[155] However, it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed, which is noticeable in the seals of kings, which reflect a clear Syrian origin.[154] The society was a tribal one,[156] it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads (Haneans),[157] and in contrast to Mesopotamia, the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace.[158] Women enjoyed a relative equality to men,[159] queen Shibtu ruled in her husband's name while he was away, and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband's highest officials.[160]
The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities,[161] and throughout most of its history, Dagan was Mari's head of the Pantheon,[162] while Mer was the patron deity.[1] Other deities included the Semitic deities; Ishtar the goddess of fertility,[161]Athtar,[163] and Shamash, the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities,[164] and believed to be all-knowing and all-seeing.[165] Sumerian deities included Ninhursag,[161]Dumuzi,[166]Enki, Anu, and Enlil.[167]Prophecy had an important role for the society, temples included prophets,[168] who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals.[169]
Economy[edit]
The first Mari provided the oldest wheels workshop to be discovered in Syria,[170] and was a center of bronze metallurgy.[3] The city also contained districts devoted to smelting, dyeing and pottery manufacturing,[12] charcoal was brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area.[3]
The second kingdom's economy was based on both agriculture and trade.[109] The economy was centralized and directed through a communal organization,[109] where grains were stored in communal granaries, and distributed amongst the population according to social statues.[109] The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom.[109] Some people were directly connected to the palace instead of the communal organization, those included the metal and textile producers and the military officials.[109] Ebla was an important trading partner and rival,[171] Mari's position made it an important trading center as it controlled the road linking between the Levant and Mesopotamia.[172]
The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy, which was still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley.[109] The city kept its trading role and was a center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms,[173] it received goods from the south and east through riverboats and distributed them north, north west and west.[174] The main merchandises handled by Mari were metals and tin imported from the Iranian Plateau and then exported west as far as Crete. Other goods included copper from Cyprus, silver from Anatolia, woods from Lebanon, gold from Egypt, olive oil, wine, and textiles in addition to precious stones from modern Afghanistan.[174]
Excavations and archive[edit]
Mari was discovered in 1933, on the eastern flank of Syria, near the Iraqi border.[175] A Bedouin tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman, when they came across a headless statue.[175] After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria, the report was investigated, and digging on the site was started on December 14, 1933 by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris.[175] The location of the fragment was excavated, revealing the temple of Ishtar, which led to the commencing of the full scale excavations.[176] Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the 'most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture'.[177]
Since the beginning of excavations, over 25,000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered.[178] Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre,[179] the National Museum of Aleppo,[180] the National Museum of Damascus,[165] and the Deir ez-Zor Museum. In the latter, the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri-Lim's palace has been reconstructed, including the wall paintings.[181]
Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns in 1933–1939, 1951–1956, and since 1960.[182]André Parrot conducted the first 21 seasons up to 1974,[183] and was followed by Jean-Claude Margueron (1979–2004),[184] and Pascal Butterlin (starting in 2005).[182] A journal devoted to the site since 1982, is Mari: Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires.[185][186] Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends, according to French archaeologist André Parrot, 'each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site's history down to virgin soil, such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed.'[187]
Mari tablets[edit]
The tablets were written in Akkadian[188] and they give information about the kingdom, its customs, and the names of people who lived during that time.[58] More than 3000 are letters, the remainder includes administrative, economic, and judicial texts.[189] Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari's independence (c. 1800 – 1750 BC),[189] and most have now been published.[190] The language of the texts is official Akkadian, but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari's inhabitants was Northwest Semitic.[191]
Current situation[edit]
Excavations stopped as a result of the Syrian Civil War that began in 2011 and continues to the present (2019).[192] The site came under the control of armed gangs and suffered large scale looting. A 2014 official report revealed that robbers were focusing on the royal palace, the public baths, the temple of Ishtar and the temple of Dagan.[193]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^All of the dates in the article are estimated through the Middle chronology unless otherwise stated.
- ^French name that means the sacred inclosure.[12]
- ^In old readings, it was thought that Enna-Dagan was a general of Ebla. However, the deciphering of Ebla's tablets showed him in Mari and receiving gifts from Ebla during the reigns of his Mariote predecessors.[16]
- ^Irkab-Damu is not named in the letter but it is almost certain that he was the recipient.[18]
- ^Located 26 km west of Raqqa.[24]
- ^Located in the Euphrates middle valley close to Sweyhat.[25]
- ^According to Jean-Marie Durand, this Shakkanakku was appointed by Manishtushu, other opinions consider Naram-Sin as the appointer of Ididish.[37]
- ^This ruled out the former theory that there was an abandonment of Mari during the transition period.[48]
- ^Suprum is 12 kilometers upstream from Mari, perhaps the modern Tel Abu Hasan.[59]
- ^It is not certain that Yaggid-Lim controlled Mari, however he is traditionally considered the first king of the dynasty.[60]
- ^The credibility of the tablet is doubted as it was written by Yasmah-Adad who was Ila-kabkabu grandson.[60]
- ^The transition of the Lim family from Suprum to Mari could have been the work of Yahdun-Lim after the war with Ila-kabkabu.[63]
- ^Although officially a son of Yahdun-Lim, in reality he was a grandchild or nephew.[79]
- ^An ancient designation for the land that include the confluence of the Khabur and the Euphrates rivers.[99]
- ^Jean-Marie Durand, although not speculating the fate of the East-Semitic population, believe that the Akkadians during the Lim dynasty are not descended from the East-Semites of the Shakkanakku period.[104]
- ^Gudug was a rank in the hierarchy of the Mesopotamian temple workers, a guduj priest was not specialized to a certain deity cult, and served in many temples.[124]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
- ^ abGreen 2003, p. 62.
- ^Oldenburg 1969, p. 60.
- ^ abcdefViollet 2007, p. 36.
- ^ abcdefghijklMargueron 2003, p. 136.
- ^ abcMargueron 2013, p. 520.
- ^ abcdAkkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 286.
- ^Margueron 2013, p. 522.
- ^ abAkkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 267.
- ^ abcdLiverani 2013, p. 117.
- ^ abMargueron 2013, p. 523.
- ^Margueron 2013, p. 524.
- ^ abcdefMargueron 2003, p. 137.
- ^ abcMargueron 2013, p. 527.
- ^Aruz & Wallenfels 2003, p. 531.
- ^Nadali 2007, p. 354.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 335.
- ^Michalowski 2003, p. 463.
- ^ abPodany 2010, p. 26.
- ^ abRoux 1992, p. 142.
- ^ abAstour 2002, p. 57.
- ^Matthews & Benjamin 2006, p. 261.
- ^ abcdefghLiverani 2013, p. 119.
- ^ abcdefAstour 2002, p. 58.
- ^Frayne 2001, p. 233.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 307–310.
- ^ abDolce 2008, p. 68.
- ^ abMichalowski 2003, p. 462.
- ^Podany 2010, p. 315.
- ^ abBretschneider, Van Vyve & Leuven 2009, p. 5.
- ^ abLiverani 2013, p. 123.
- ^Stieglitz 2002, p. 219.
- ^ abBretschneider, Van Vyve & Leuven 2009, p. 7.
- ^Archi & Biga 2003, p. 33–35.
- ^Astour 2002, p. 75.
- ^Astour 2002, p. 71, 64.
- ^ abAstour 2002, p. 64.
- ^Michalowski 1993, p. 83.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 77.
- ^ abcdefgOliva 2008, p. 86.
- ^ abLeick 2002, p. 152.
- ^Margueron 2003, p. 138.
- ^ abcdeMargueron 2013, p. 530.
- ^Suriano 2010, p. 56.
- ^Strommenger 1964, p. 167.
- ^Margueron 2013, p. 531.
- ^Bryce 2009, p. xli.
- ^Cooper 1999, p. 65.
- ^ abcWossink 2009, p. 31.
- ^Tetlow 2004, p. 10.
- ^Bryce 2014, p. 18.
- ^ abBryce 2009, p. 451.
- ^Astour 2002, p. 127.
- ^Astour 2002, p. 132.
- ^Roux 1992, p. 188, 189.
- ^ abcFrayne 1990, p. 597.
- ^ abAstour 2002, p. 139.
- ^Sicker 2000, p. 25.
- ^ abDeVries 2006, p. 27.
- ^Bryce 2009, p. 673.
- ^ abcdePorter 2012, p. 31.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 601.
- ^ abRoux 1992, p. 189.
- ^ abFeliu 2003, p. 86.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 603.
- ^ abFrayne 1990, p. 606.
- ^Fowden 2014, p. 93.
- ^Bryce 2014, p. 19.
- ^ abPitard 2001, p. 38.
- ^Van Der Meer 1955, p. 29.
- ^Dale 2003, p. 271.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 613.
- ^Bryce 2014, p. 20.
- ^Van De Mieroop 2011, p. 109.
- ^ abcdTetlow 2004, p. 125.
- ^ abBryce 2009, p. 452.
- ^Grayson 1972, p. 27.
- ^Harris 2003, p. 141.
- ^ abcdHamblin 2006, p. 258.
- ^Charpin 2011, p. 252.
- ^Liverani 2013, p. 228.
- ^ abDalley 2002, p. 143.
- ^Malamat 1980, p. 75.
- ^Van Der Toorn 1996, p. 101.
- ^Kupper 1973, p. 9.
- ^Bryce 2009, p. 329.
- ^Bryce 2009, p. 687.
- ^Bryce 2009, p. 45.
- ^Charpin 2012, p. 39.
- ^Burns 2009, p. 198.
- ^Gates 2003, p. 65.
- ^Shaw 1999, p. 379.
- ^Van De Mieroop 2007, p. 68.
- ^Van De Mieroop 2007, p. 70.
- ^Van De Mieroop 2007, p. 76, 139, 152.
- ^Fleming 2012, p. 226.
- ^ abVan De Mieroop 2007, p. 76.
- ^ abcdefgBryce 2009, p. 453.
- ^Dalley 2002, p. 201.
- ^Bryce 2009, p. 408.
- ^Hasselbach 2005, p. 3.
- ^Van De Mieroop 2002, p. 133.
- ^Chew 2007, p. 67.
- ^McMahon 2013, p. 469.
- ^ abHeimpel 2003, p. 21.
- ^Haldar 1971, p. 8.
- ^Liverani 2013, p. 222.
- ^Heimpel 2003, p. 22.
- ^Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 114.
- ^ abcdefgRiehl et al. 2013, p. 117.
- ^Michalowski 2000, p. 55.
- ^ abLiverani 2013, p. 223.
- ^Heimpel 2003, p. 26.
- ^Finer 1997, p. 173.
- ^ abLiverani 2013, p. 224.
- ^Maisels 2005, p. 322.
- ^ abHaldar 1971, p. 16.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 293–298.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 293–298.
- ^ abHamblin 2006, p. 244.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 593.
- ^Bertman 2005, p. 87.
- ^Kramer 2010, p. 329.
- ^ abcdeCohen 2013, p. 148.
- ^Black et al. 2004, p. 112.
- ^Cooper 1986, p. 87.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 299.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 315.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 333.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 337.
- ^Frayne 2008, p. 339.
- ^Heimpel 2003, p. 3.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 81.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 18.
- ^Michalowski 1995, p. 187.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 76.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 78.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 168.
- ^ abcOliva 2008, p. 91.
- ^Oliva 2008, p. 92.
- ^Leick 2002, p. 67.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 594.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 596.
- ^Oliva 2008, p. 87.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 598.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 599.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. 600.
- ^Armstrong 1996, p. 457.
- ^Chavalas 2005, p. 43.
- ^Pardee & Glass 1984, p. 95.
- ^Matthiae 2003, p. 170.
- ^Pettinato 1981, p. 147.
- ^Cohen 1993, p. 23.
- ^Kramer 2010, p. 30.
- ^ abGreen 2003, p. 161.
- ^Larsen 2008, p. 16.
- ^Wossink 2009, p. 126.
- ^Heimpel 2003, p. 29.
- ^Grabbe 2004, p. 3.
- ^Dougherty & Ghareeb 2013, p. 657.
- ^Tetlow 2004, p. 84.
- ^ abcFeliu 2003, p. 90.
- ^Feliu 2003, p. 304, 171.
- ^Smith 1995, p. 629.
- ^Thompson 2007, p. 245.
- ^ abDarke 2010, p. 293.
- ^Feliu 2003, p. 92.
- ^Feliu 2003, p. 170.
- ^Nissinen, Seow & Ritner 2003, p. 79.
- ^Walton 1990, p. 209.
- ^Margueron 2013, p. 521.
- ^Otto & Biga 2010, p. 486.
- ^Liverani 2013, p. 126.
- ^Aubet 2013, p. 141.
- ^ abTeissier 1996, p. 6.
- ^ abcDalley 2002, p. 10.
- ^Evans 2012, p. 180.
- ^Gadd 1971, p. 97.
- ^Malamat 1998, p. 45.
- ^Frayne 1990, p. xxviii.
- ^Gates 2003, p. 143.
- ^Bonatz, Kühne & Mahmoud 1998, p. 93.
- ^ abDaniels & Hanson 2015, p. 87.
- ^Margueron 1992, p. 217.
- ^Crawford 2013, p. xvii.
- ^Dalley 2002, p. 2.
- ^Heintz, Bodi & Millot 1990, p. 48.
- ^McLerran 2011.
- ^Ochterbeek 1996, p. 214.
- ^ abFleming 2004, p. 48.
- ^Feliu 2003, p. 63.
- ^Gates 2003, p. 62.
- ^Simons 2016.
- ^Cockburn 2014.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mari. |
- Mari Mari passage on the Syrian ministry of culture website (in Arabic).
- Syrie - Mari Mari page on Britannica.
- Mari (Tell Hariri) Suggestion to have Mari (Tell Hariri) recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site, in 1999
Mari, also called Mari Urraca, Anbotoko Mari ('the lady of Anboto'), and Murumendiko Dama ('lady of Murumendi') was a goddess of the Basques. She was married to the godSugaar (also known as Sugoi or Maju). Legends connect her to the weather: when she and Maju travelled together hail would fall, her departures from her cave would be accompanied by storms or droughts, and which cave she lived in at different times would determine dry or wet weather: wet when she was in Anboto; dry when she was elsewhere (the details vary). Other places where she was said to dwell include the chasm of Murumendi, the cave of Gurutzegorri (Ataun), Aizkorri and Aralar, although it is not always possible to be certain which Basque legends should be considered as the origin.
Etymology[edit]
It is believed that Mari is a modification of Emari (gift) or Amari (mother + the suffix of profession) by losing the first vowel. The closeness in names between Mary and Mari may have helped pagans adapt their worship of Mari to undertake Christian veneration of the Virgin Mary.[1] The first known written citation of the 'Dame of Amboto' was made by Charles V's chronicler Esteban de Garibay Zamalloa in his Memorial histórico español.[2]
Beliefs associated with Mari[edit]
Mari lives underground, normally in a cave in a high mountain, where she and her consort Sugaar meet every Friday (the night of the Akelarre or witch-meeting) to conceive the storms that will bring fertility (and sometimes disgrace) to the land and the people. Mari is served by a court of sorginak (witches), and is said to feed 'on the negation and affirmation' (that is, on falsehood).
Occasionally the figure of Mari is linked to the kidnapping or theft of cows. The presence of Christian priests in those myths may indicate that they are Christian fabrications or distortions of original material. Legends do not recount any kind of sacrifices offered to Mari under normal circumstances, in contrast to food given to lesser spirits (lamiak, jentilak, etc.), as recompense for their work in the fields.
In various legends, Mari is said to have sons or daughters, but their number and character fluctuate. The two most well-known were her two sons, Atxular and Mikelatz. Atxular represents largely the Christianized Basque soul, becoming a priest after having learned from the Devil in a church in Salamanca and then having escaped. Mikelatz seems to have a more negative or wild character ; he is sometimes assimilated into the spirit of storms, Hodei, or embodied as a young red bull.
Another legend presents Mari as wife to the Lord of Biscay, Diego López I de Haro. This marriage may symbolize the legitimacy of the dynasty, much in the style of the Irish goddess marrying the kings of that island as a religious act of legitimacy. In any case, the condition that Mari imposes on her husband is that, while he could keep his Christian faith, he was obliged to keep it outside the home. Once, apparently after discovering that his wife had a goat leg instead of a normal human foot, he made the sign of the cross. Immediately after that act, Mari took her daughter, jumped through the window and disappeared, never to return. This account can be heard as delegitimizing the de Haro family, who had been placed as lords by the Castilian conquerors not long before this myth arose.
Other legends are more simple. For example, there is a legend that when one is lost in the wild, one only has to cry Mari's name loudly three times to have her appear over one's head to help the person find his or her way.
The people of Oñati believed that the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, and dry when she was in Aloña. In Zeanuri, Biscay, they say that she would stay seven years in Anboto, then the next seven in a cave in Oiz called Supelegor. A similar legend in Olaeta, Biscay substitutes Gorbea for Supelegor.
A legend from Otxandio, Biscay tells that Mari was born in Lazkao, Gipuzkoa, and that she was the evil sister of a Roman Catholicpriest. In other legends, the priest is her cousin Juanito Chistu, rather than a brother, and is a great hunter. She was said to take a distaff by the middle and walk along spinning, and leaving storms in her wake.
In Elorrieta, Biscay, it was said that she would be in her cave, combing her hair, and not even a shepherd could draw near to her. It was also said that her malign power did not extend to those who were innocent of sin.
Folklorist Resurrección María de Azkue ties Mari Urraca to a legend about a princess of the Kingdom of Navarre, widow of a 12th-century nobleman who lived in the Tower of Muncharaz in the valley known as the Merindad de Durango. She vanished at the time of his death and was said to have headed for the cave of Anboto. According to Azkue, Iturriza tells this story in his Historia de Vizcaya. Labayru in her Historia de Vizcaya doubts it.
Legends attached to the Lady of Murumendi, according to Azkue, include that she had seven brothers and was changed into a witch for her disobedience, and that the weather would be warm (or turbulent) when she walked about. In Beizama, Gipuzkoa, they say that if she stays in her cave and if, on the day of the Holy Cross, appropriate spells are cast, hail can be prevented. They also say that she and her husband once went to church in a cart and that upon leaving church, she rose into the air saying, 'Domingo, Domingo el de Murua, siete hijos para el mundo, ninguno para el cielo' ('Domingo, Domingo of Murua, seven children for the world, none for heaven').[3][4]
Mari was associated with various forces of nature, including thunder and wind. As the personification of the Earth, she may have been worshipped in association with Lurbira.
Mari was regarded as the protectoress of senators and the executive branch. She is depicted as riding through the sky in a chariot pulled by horses or rams. Her idols usually feature a full moon behind her head.
Mari is the main character of Basque mythology, having, unlike other creatures that share the same spiritual environment, a god-like nature. Mari is often witnessed as a woman dressed in red. She is also seen as a woman of fire, woman-tree and as thunderbolt. Additionally, she is identified with red animals (cow, ram, horse), and with the black he-goat.
Christianization[edit]
Santa Marina, a saint revered in the Basque Country, is a Christianized version of Mari. Basque women still invoke Santa Marina's protection against curses and for aid in childbirth.
Mari 4 0 Activation Key
The most accepted syncretism is with the Virgin Mary; she is widely venerated by modern Christian Basques.
Further reading[edit]
- Luis de Barandiarán Irízar (editor), A View From The Witch's Cave: Folktales of The Pyrenees (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1991). ISBN0-87417-176-8
See also[edit]
Mari 4 Tutorial
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mari. |
References[edit]
- ^This derives from articles in the Enciclopedia General Ilustrada del Pais VascoEncyclopedia Auñamendi, which in turn cite Euskalerriaren Yakintza, Tomo I 'Costumbres y supersticiones', by folklorist Resurrección María de Azkue (1864-1951). It notes that additional legends were recorded by Jose Miguel Barandiaran and Juan Thalamas Labandibar.
- ^Esteban de Garibay Zamalloa, Memorial histórico español: colección de documentos, opúsculos y antigüedades, Tomo VII.
- ^The meaning of 'Murua' is obscure, but it might perhaps refer to the small village of Murua [eu] near Beizama. It may be impossible to be certain.
- ^Patxi Xabier Lezama Perier (2018). Basque Mythology: History of the myths and deities of the Basque Mythology. Euskadi Public Reading Network / Google.
External links[edit]
- Mari and other Basque legends, Buber Basque Page